Voltaire: the smile of reason

1 January 2025
Celia Hay

Voltaire (1694-1778)

Voltaire’s name is widely recognised, yet his historical context often remains obscure.

Voltaire lived during the period known today as the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. This was an intellectual movement that developed in Europe from the late 17th centuries in response to social upheavals caused by the wars of religion and advances in scientific knowledge. This thinking emphasised reason and the use of scientific methods and empirical evidence to validate understanding. It symbolised a cultural shift to acknowledge individual rights such as freedom, equality, and justice.

The Enlightenment philosophers rejected superstition and traditional authority often imposed by monarchs and the church, which signalled the move towards more secular societies. Enlightenment thinking influenced the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789) with underpinning concepts of democracy, constitutional governance and human rights.

This period has profoundly shaped our world today in terms of thought, politics, science, and society.

As a writer, Voltaire championed causes such as religious tolerance, freedom of speech, justice and reform of the penal system through his prolific prose.

Voltaire 1694-1778

Francois Marie Arouet was born in 1694 to an upper-middle class family in Paris. Voltaire received a formal education and his father expected Voltaire to become a lawyer like him. But he wanted to write. Voltaire could converse in Latin, Italian, Spanish and later became fluent in English. As a writer, his first tragedy, Oedipe (1718) made him famous.

In 1717, following a salacious verse about the Prince Regent, during the minority of Louis XV, Voltaire was imprisoned in the Bastille for 11 months. Around this time, he changed his name to Voltaire. In 1723, Voltaire published the epic and controversial poem La Henriade, honouring the French King Henri IV, who had introduced an era of religious tolerance with Edict of Nantes (1698), following decades of religious wars and persecution. Voltaire travelled to Holland to publish this poem as permission was denied in France.

Voltaire was at a dinner hosted by the Duc de Sully at which he outsmarted the Duc de Rohan in argument. Rohan had Voltaire summoned from the room and beaten by his servants. The incident represented is Voltaire's return to the dining-room, and his appeal to his host to challenge the insult. The guests are seated at an elaborately laid table, the Duc at the head turning disdainfully to Voltaire, who stands with white face, clenched hands, and irate gesture, to the right. Artist: Sir William Quiller Orchardson (1832 - 1910) Scottish

Voltaire’s letters

Voltaire was an avid letter writer. Testament to his influence is the survival of over 15,000 letters along with numerous publications dating from 1717 to his death in 1778. These writings offer insights into his intellect, personal relationships and commitment to the Enlightenment ideals. During his lifetime, Voltaire was so famous, that people did not throw his letters away!

The letters are extraordinary and give remarkable insight into his personality. To help him in this task, Voltaire employed secretaries and could dictate to them to ensure a speedy reply and efficiency. Voltaire is witty, sarcastic, obsequious, charming and above all, human. And, he is corresponding with important people, even during his exile. He regularly writes to the French prime minister, duc de Choiseul and to his influential wife, to many Enlightenment philosopher friends, to Catherine the Great of Russia and they all write back.

One of Voltaire’s enduring friendships was with the Marquis d’Argental, a friend over 60 years, to whom he wrote thousands of letters. To another friend, Damilaville, Voltaire wrote 539 letters between 1760 and 1768 and in the first half of 1765, he wrote 61 letters in just the first six months which averages at one letter every three days.[1] This friendship was built on correspondence as they did not meet until 1765.

The images and sculptures of Voltaire often depict the hint of a smile. The smile of reason?

Prison and Exile

Voltaire was imprisoned again in 1726, following an altercation with a well-connected, noble (duc de Rohan) but was able to negotiate exile in England for two years. This period in England was formative for Voltaire. It provided a catalyst to shape his thinking about individual tolerance, freedom of speech, religious plurality, commerce and constitutional monarchy. In England, he met with the most important and influential thinkers of the day.

After returning to France, Voltaire published in English and later in French, Letters concerning the English Nation. This caused an enormous scandal because if its implicit criticism of the French government. Again, Voltaire was forced to flee.

This time he took refuge with his lover, Emilie du Châtelet, at her chateau in Cirey, Eastern France. He stayed with her for 10 years.

Lotteries and Loans

One of the intriguing things about Voltaire is that a combination of good luck, good contacts and good timing made him an extremely wealthy man.

In 1728, Voltaire’s mathmetician friend found an error in the investment calculation for the French Government’s lottery and determined that the prizes offered were significantly greater than the revenue generated from the lottery ticket sales. They formed a syndicate to buy all the lottery tickets and made a legal fortune. With this money – perhaps 500,000 francs- Voltaire then invested in a speculative scheme of the duc de Lorraine, selling out immediately for a large profit. By age 36, it is estimated that Voltaire had capital of 1 million francs.

In the days before a public banking system like we have today, governments relied on loans from private individuals. Voltaire used his capital to invest widely, including French Government debt and the French India Company (equivalent of the English East India Company, (founded 1600) and Dutch East India Company (founded 1602) established to explore opportunities and invest in Asia. Voltaire also provided private loans to dukes and princes. In France, he lent to the duc de Richelieu, prince de Guise and in Germany to the duc de Wurtemberg. These loans, called rente viagère, provided an interest-only loan for the duration of the life of the lender. Annual interest was paid but no principal repaid. Voltaire died aged 84 years and was able to derive interest of 7 – 10% per annum, and from subsequent generations of a family, once the original borrower had died. No one expected him to live such a long life and derive such long-term return on his investment. Some nobles fell into arrears for interest payments which alarmed Voltaire, and he would send his lawyer-nephew to negotiate repayments.

Friends at Versailles

Desirous of recognition at the Court of Louis XV, Voltaire returned to Paris and in 1744 was appointed Royal Historian. In 1746, he was appointed Gentleman in Ordinary of the King’s Chamber and elected to the Académie Française(founded 1635) – the official authority on the French language. In 1750, Voltaire travelled to the court of Frederick the Great in Prussia, where he was appointed Poet in Residence. After three years, he fell out of favour and decided to return to France.

By Maurice Quentin de La Tour - https://histoire-image.org/fr/etudes/madame-pompadour, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=464024

Voltaire was informed by Madame du Pompadour, Louis XV’s mistress, that he was banished from France and given no indication when he could return.

Geneva, Switzerland

Voltaire was invited to Geneva, an enclave of Protestantism based on the teaching of John Calvin. It was the home of philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau along with many protestant (Huguenot) immigrants expelled from France.

In 1754, Voltaire acquired the country house, Les Delices, however in Calvinist Geneva, theatres were banned. This prompted Voltaire to look beyond the city to avoid potential conflicts. In 1758, he purchased Chateau de Ferney, located in France, 10 kilometres from Geneva.

Voltaire’s wealth enabled him to live a luxurious life even in exile. At Fernay, Voltaire re-built the château and included a theatre to house his plays and visiting productions. Here, Voltaire felt safe from the Protestant pressures of Geneva and very distant from the French court at Versailles.

Voltaire and Women

While Voltaire never married, he had two significant long-term relationships. Emilie, marquise du Châtelet, was a mathematician and scientist who translated Newton’s Principia Mathematica from Latin to French adding important updated information to the text. They lived together from 1734-1744, when he returned to Paris.

From the mid 1740s, Voltaire formed a relationship with his niece, Madame Marie-Louise Denis. They would live together until the end of his life in 1778. At Ferney, Mme Denis ran the household, was hostess to the lavish dinners and events that attracted guests from all over Europe and Voltaire’s trusted companion. Voltaire described himself as the innkeeper of Europe.

Voltaire’s health was always marginal, although it improved during his years at Ferney.

By Jean-Antoine Houdon - This file was donated to Wikimedia Commons as part of a project by the National Gallery of Art. Please see the Gallery's Open Access Policy., CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=74852801

Human rights advocate

During the 1860s, Voltaire developed a new focus on human rights. It is shocking to read of how innocent people might be arrested and tortured, with no right of defence.

Voltaire became personally involved in several cases of Protestants who had been arrested, tortured in some instances killed, and their family impoverished as a consequence. There were seven cases during the 1760s where Voltaire’s letters and engagement of lawyers helped fight for the rehabilitation of these victims. There is one shocking example of a case where a young man, aged 19 from a noble family, is charged with blasphemy having sung inappropriate songs in a church. He is tortured, broken on the wheel, his tongue cut out and executed. Voltaire was unable to save him, but he did publicize the inappropriate penalty for such a ‘crime’. Voltaire also lobbied for the removal of serfdom in Jura. Serfs could not leave the land where they were born and were tied to the owner of the land. While not considered slaves, they were equivalent of slaves.

Voltaire and Watchmaking

In the last decade of his life, Voltaire, now in his 70s became an entrepreneur establishing watchmaking workshops at Ferney. During 1760s, the city government of Geneva was challenged some resident watchmakers, who did not have political rights under Geneva law and looked to Voltaire for help. These dissatisfied craftsmen re-established their workshops in Ferney as Voltaire offered more economic freedom and political autonomy. Voltaire provided housing and workshops and capital to enable the production of high-quality watches.

Voltaire used his extensive network of aristocrats and intellectuals to promote the sale of the watches and gain access to luxury components such as gold and diamonds. The colony flourished for a period even after Voltaire’s death.

Return to Paris

Finally, following the death of Louis XV, Voltaire was able to return to Paris in 1778. Once there, aged 84 and in poor health, he was a celebrity. People rushed to his door, including Benjamin Franklin and his grandson. Voltaire died in Paris but not without controversy as the Church wanted a final confession for him to receive a Christian burial.

In his final days, he was able to manoeuvre through this requirement and was buried by his nephew, an abbot, near Troyes, Champagne. In 1791, the French Revolutionaries, removed Voltaire’s body and reburied him in the Parthenon, Paris. They regarded Voltaire as a hero.

Why is Voltaire relevant today?

Voltaire writes of issues that remain relevant to us. His views on tolerance, individual rights and personal independence, scientific reasoning, rationalism, pluralism, secularism, separation of public and government affairs, belief in the power of education to improve humanity.

You can visit Voltaire's home in the village Ferney-Voltaire, France and Les Delice, Geneva, Switzerland.

The Voltaire Foundation, based at the University of Oxford has collated Voltaire's writings into 205 volumes. The Voltaire Lab provides digital copies. Find out more here.

Celia Hay

1/1/2025